Investigating to what extent social media affects fan behaviour in Formula One.

1 INTRODUCTION

The aim of this dissertation is to investigate the extent of social media fan behaviour in Formula One. In the modern world, the relationship between sports and their global audiences has been drastically changed by the rise in popularity of social media. Formula  One (F1), an historically elite and technical sport, has significantly changed how it interacts with fans, largely with platforms such as X (formerly Twitter), Instagram, YouTube and TikTok. F1, once primarily consumed through television broadcasts and print media, is now embedded in a dynamic digital culture where fans interact with content, communities and controversies in real time. 

Through social media, F1 fans can get immediate access to news, live updates and announcements, all contributing to a more immersive fan experience. For many, this is a definitive upgrade from traditional media. However, this can also create a space where fan behaviour can become highly toxic, especially during controversial moments on the track. This dissertation aims to explore both positive and negative behavioural changes that are influenced by social media. 

During the research stage of this dissertation, a content analysis related to key events during multiple Formula One seasons was carried out. This method enabled a detailed look at how fans engage with the sport and how emotional, social and cultural dynamics are reflected in the language and sentiment of these online interactions. By focusing on Twitter, the research captured the immediacy and intensity of fan reactions, offering insight into how narratives are formed, reinforced, or challenged in digital spaces. 

This dissertation also considers how online fan behaviour may impact the broader Formula One ecosystem, including media coverage, team responses, and commercial strategies. The findings from the tweet analysis will be continuously linked to existing academic literature on sports fandom, digital culture, and media influence to present a well-supported conclusion on the evolving nature of fan behaviour in the age of social media. 

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 

This dissertation aims to answer three research questions. Dividing the investigation into these three questions can lead to more detailed research and more conclusive results. These questions were formed by dissecting the concepts and theories of 'fan behaviour' into a situation relevant to the dissertation. 

RQ1: How does engagement with Formula One-related content on social media influence fans' emotional attachment to teams and drivers? 

RQ2: To what extent does social media shape fan perceptions and opinions during controversies or major events in Formula One? 

RQ3: How do social media platforms influence fan participation in Formula One-related activities such as merchandise purchases, event attendance, or virtual communities? 

Sports journalism and social media have a specific role in shaping public perception of athletes, teams and sporting events. Historically, traditional media such as newspapers, radio, and television broadcasts have framed athletes and teams with specific narratives, creating heroes and villains (Boyle & Haynes, 2009). 

This chapter reviews the literature on the influence of social media on fan behaviour, specifically in the world of Formula One. It summarises in detail the key theories, models and studies that inform this research. It contextualises the study within existing sources and identifies the knowledge gaps that this dissertation aims to address. 

The literature review is divided into two sections. Section one focuses on the theoretical foundations of social media and fan behaviour, going into depth on specific theories and how they correlate to the research questions proposed and discussing why certain people act a certain way online. The second section discusses the methodological approach within previous studies of the same area, understanding why others may have taken said approach and whether it was successful.

2.2 KEY THEORIES

Fan engagement on social media can be understood through the lens of the uses and gratifications theory (UGT) (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1973), which posits that individuals actively use media to satisfy specific needs, including emotional connection, identity formation, entertainment and social interaction. According to UGT, people are not passive consumers of media but active participants who seek out content that fulfils their desires or goals. This perspective is particularly useful in understanding the complex ways in which Formula One fans engage with social media, as they turn to platforms like Instagram, Twitter and TikTok to meet a variety of personal and social needs (Whiting & Williams, 2013). In the context of Formula One, fans often use social media to access behind-the-scenes content, real-time updates, and personal moments shared by drivers, as well as forms of content that better their connection to the sport and its drivers. 

Fans' participatory behaviours, such as attending events, joining virtual communities, or purchasing merchandise, can again be understood through the uses and gratifications theory (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1973), particularly in relation to social interaction and identity expression. Social media campaigns often leverage these motivations by creating a sense of exclusivity and belonging, encouraging fans to demonstrate loyalty through purchases or digital engagement. 

Cultivation theory can also reinforce the emotional connection (Gerbner & Gross, 1976). It argues that long-term media exposure shapes users' perceptions of reality. As fans absorb select representations of the hosts' personalities and lifestyles, they internalise these narratives, blurring the line between athletes' public personas and perceived authenticity. This is particularly significant regarding aggressive or harmful content, as cultivation theory helps explain how social media can 'cultivate' an environment of animosity or friendliness between fan groups. 

Cultivation theory (Gerbner & Gross, 1976) also suggests that repeated exposure to team branding, promotional content, and driver narratives through social media normalises consumer behaviour tied to fandom. Over time, buying merchandise or attending events becomes perceived as a natural behaviour for a 'true fan,' shaped by the cumulative effect of media exposure. 

Alongside this, social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) explains how fans derive a sense of identity from groups, such as supporting a particular driver or team, through shared hashtags, memes and fan pages, they engage in group dynamics that reinforce loyalty and deepen emotional bonds. The theory explores how individuals define themselves based on the groups to which they belong. Social media amplifies these in-group and out-group dynamics, leading to heightened emotional responses between fans, drivers, or teams, especially when linked to a team or driver's performance (Lock and Funk, 2016.). 

Social identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) is also particularly relevant in fan participatory behaviour, as wearing team merchandise or participating in online forums becomes a public expression of group belonging. Virtual fan communities like Reddit or Discord facilitate collaboration, debate, and collective experience, further reinforcing a shared group identity and long-term loyalty (Broughton and Neyer, 2021). 

As framing theory explains, social media platforms also play a central role in shaping fan reactions during Formula One controversies (Goffman, 1974; Entmand, 1993). How incidents are framed by influencers, journalists, and fan accounts influences how they are interpreted. For example, whether a driver is seen as a victim or aggressor often depends on the dominant narrative being circulated. Media framing can highlight certain aspects of a story while downplaying others. This is often seen in how fans respond to the FIA. Supporters of different drivers and teams may converge to frame the governing body collectively in a negative light (Kian, Mondello & Vincent, 2009). 

The echo chamber effect (Sunstein, 2001) further complicates how fans form opinions. This concept refers to online environments where individuals are primarily exposed to information or opinions reinforcing their beliefs. Social media algorithms intensify this effect by curating content that aligns with a user's past interactions. As a result, fans are often exposed to one-sided narratives, reinforcing biases and contributing to community polarisation. This was especially evident during the 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, where divergent interpretations of the outcome led to significant fan divisions (Pariser, 2011). 

Online disinhibition theory (Suler, 2004) also provides insight into how fans behave on social media. The anonymity and physical distance offered by online platforms reduce social inhibition, leading users to express emotions more freely, sometimes with hostility or toxic behaviour, especially during emotionally charged or controversial events. Fans say things online that they would not in face-to-face interactions, contributing to the often intense and aggressive nature of Formula One discussions on social media. 

2.3 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES

Previous investigators have employed several methodological approaches to examine the effects of social media on fan behaviour. As there is only a small amount of previous academic literature written on Formula One, this dissertation uses academic writings about specific characteristics of the research questions, including the effect of social media on fan behaviour in other sports and literature on the connection between fan behaviour and merchandise purchasing. 

One approach previously used was a quasi-experimental design (Mudrick, Miller & Atkin, 2016) involving a sample of 630 sports fans. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups, each presented with a scenario about their favourite team's performance. After reading the scenarios, participants completed an online survey assessing their intentions to engage in fan-related behaviours on social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter. The survey utilised a five-point Likert scale to gauge participants' agreement with statements related to three behaviours: 

• Team identification: Fans who strongly identified with their team were more likely to engage in positive behaviours on Facebook and Twitter. 

• Impact of game outcome: A victorious outcome led to increased positive behaviours, while a losing outcome prompted dissociation from the team, particularly on Facebook. 

• Social media as identity expression: Social networking sites were found to serve as platforms for fans to express their social identity, demonstrate pride in their team, and manage their public image. 

A quasi-experimental design is a suitable method for investigating cause-and-effect relationships and it worked well for this research. The design is helpful in real-world or naturalistic settings where ethical, logistical or practical constraints make actual experiments infeasible. However, it has several limitations that make it less ideal. Differences in groups might be due to pre-existing characteristics rather than the 'treatment' or intervention alongside this because all confounding variables cannot be fully controlled, it cannot randomly assign participants to treatment or control groups, and it is hard to be certain that the observed effect is caused by the independent variable. This, in turn, makes causal inference less reliable. 

Another method used in the 2018 study on 'mediating the impact of fan-page engagement on social media connectedness and followers purchase intention' (Rahman, Moghavvemmi, Suberamanaian, Zanuddin & Bin Md Masir, 2018), was a structured survey. The researchers utilised customer engagement behaviour and consumer involvement theories to examine the relationships between fan page engagement, social media connectedness, and purchase intention. The data was collected from 307 followers of five Malaysian companies' Facebook fan pages. A structured questionnaire was distributed via a web link to the identified followers. Engagement activities on fan pages partially mediated the relationship between the fan page following and engagement on purchase intention varied across different demographic groups. For instance, gender, race, age, income level, and trust in online purchases was found to influence the strength of these relationships. The benefits of a structured survey are vast and make the most sense for this study. The standardisation of a survey ensures that every respondent answers the same question, increasing the consistency and making statistical comparisons between responses easier to analyse. However, with limited depth, respondents can only choose from the predefined options in a survey, which may miss nuance or oversimplify complex opinions; there is also no opportunity to ask follow-up questions or clarify answers, which can reduce the richness of insight. Structured surveys are great for collecting larger scale, comparable and quantifiable data but they lack the flexibility and depth of more open ended or qualitative approaches (DeCarlo, 2018.). 

Combining both these methods, K. C. Lee used a questionnaire utilising the five-point Likert scale in his writing, 'The Impact of Social Media Usage on Sport Participation and Well-being of English Premier League Fans.' A total of 404 participants were recruited, all of whom were followers of the English premier league. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between social media usage, sports participation, and well-being. The results noted that increased engagement with social media was positively associated with higher levels of sports participation among fans; it was also noted that higher social media usage was linked to improved well-being among fans, and additionally that noting that fan loyalty did not significantly moderate the relationship between social media and sports participation. (Lee, 2019)

Interviews have also been used in the European sport management quarterly. An in-depth, semi-structured interview was conducted with fifteen female fans of European professional football clubs (Antunovic & Harding, 2022.). The interview data was analysed using inductive thematic analysis (also used in this dissertation), allowing for the identification of patterns and themes related to social media usage and community formation. The study found that male dominance in football fandom is reinforced through social media platforms;  in response to this dominance, female fans modify their online behaviour by forming micro-communities where they can discuss football in a more supportive and inclusive environment. The splintering of the online fan community into these micro-communities represents a form of 'cyber Balkanisation,' which has implications for the ability of female fans to build bridging social media. Using interviews is arguably the best method for looking for depth and insight into a topic, particularly about emotions, motivations or personal experiences. However, they trade off scale and efficiency for that depth. (Fenton,  Gillooly & Vasilica, 2023)

The methodological approach found that is most similar to this dissertation was 'the role of social media in the regrowth of Formula 1 in Portugal.' This study by Ana Camarinha, António Abreu, Luís Miguel Martins, and António Vieira de Castri employed a qualitative content analysis to investigate how social media influenced the resurgence of Formula One in Portugal. The researchers analysed posts from Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, which are the platforms most used by Formula One fans in Portugal. Posts were collected using relevant keywords and then analysed using WebQDA software, a qualitative data analysis tool, to identify patterns and themes in the content. The study concluded that social media played a pivotal role in the regrowth of Formula One in Portugal by: 

• Enhancing communication strategies: Social media served as a crucial tool for Formula One and television channels holding broadcasting rights in Portugal, aligning with their new communication strategies to engage fans. 

• Increasing fan engagement: The presence and activity on social media platforms facilitated greater interaction between fans and the sport, fostering a more connected and engaged community. 

• Supporting sports growth: The strategic use of social media contributed to the growth, solidification, and cohesion of the Formula One fan base in Portugal. 

The benefits of using content analysis include real-time and naturalistic data, social media posts were created spontaneously and organically, offering insights into authentic public opinion and behaviour without researcher influence, and the platform also generated vast amounts of data, which could support broad trend analysis and even predictive modelling. Compared to surveys or interviews, content analysis can be cheaper and less time-intensive especially when using existing datasets or automation tools. It also allows access to diverse voices, and social media captures opinions from a wide demographic and geographical range, increasing the variety of perspectives in the data. However, not all groups use social media equally. The data can be skewed by age, location, language, platform or fandom subcultures, limiting representativeness. The posts are also often brief and can be sarcastic or ambiguous, which can make them hard to interpret without additional context. 

These studies demonstrate a broad range of methodologies used to examine social media's impact on fans, from controlled designs to naturalistic data collection. However, few have explicitly focused on Formula One, and even fewer have examined fan behaviour through qualitative content analysis of social media posts. This gap provides a rationale for the methodological approach used in this dissertation, which employs qualitative content analysis of Twitter posts to explore emotional attachment, perception shaping and participation, directly aligned with the three research questions outlined in section 2.1.  

3 METHODOLOGY

This dissertation adopts a qualitative content analysis approach to explore the ways in which social media, specifically Twitter (now X), influences and reflects the attitudes, emotions and engagement of Formula One fans. Twitter was chosen as the primary platform due to its unique ability to generate vast, real-time datasets that provide a detailed snapshot of fan interactions and sentiment. With its open and interactive format, Twitter encourages public discourse, making it an ideal space for observing fan behaviour, particularly in high-engagement communities, such as those surrounding Formula One.

Content analysis is a systemic method used to process and categorise large amounts of textual data, allowing the researcher to uncover patterns, trends and sentiments that emerge over time. This approach is particularly advantageous when dealing with large volumes of data, as it enables the researcher to extract meaningful insights from a diverse range of tweets, which can vary in tone, complexity, and focus. By breaking down the content into manageable units, such as keywords, phrases, or themes, content analysis allows for the identification of recurring topics, opinions, and emotional responses that characterise fan interactions within the digital space. 

One strength of content analysis is its ability to accommodate both qualitative and quantitative analysis. On the one hand, qualitative analysis allows for a deep interpretative exploration of the specific ways fans express their thoughts, feelings and behaviours, focusing on the context and nuance of each tweet. Whilst on the other hand, quantitative analysis can provide insights into the frequency and prevalence of certain sentients or themes, offering a statistical overview of the issues that dominate fan discussions. This dual capacity makes content analysis an ideal method for capturing a broad spectrum of fan engagement, from individual emotional expression to collective trends and patterns. 

In contrast to traditional research methods such as surveys or interviews, content analysis relies on existing, publicly available data, which offers several practical advantages. By analysing tweets that fans have already posted online, the researcher can bypass the time-consuming and costly process of participation recruitment while also sidestepping ethical concerns related to direct interaction with participants. Furthermore, social media content is often spontaneous and less formal than survey responses for interview data, providing an authentic and unfiltered view of fan attitudes and behaviours. 

The method is especially relevant to this research topic because it directly examines the digital expression of fan behaviour, which is the central focus of the investigation. By analysing the content that fans share online, content analysis provides a direct lens into how they express key aspects of fan identity, such as loyalty, rivalry, and emotion. These emotional responses are integral to understanding the complex relationship between fans and the sport and the way in which social media amplifies or moderates these expressions. In this way, content analysis not only allow the researcher to capture the raw sentiment of the fans but also allows them to contextualise it within the broader dynamics of Formula One fandom. It provides a window into the evolving nature of fan engagement in the digital age, where social media has become a pivotal platform for interaction and expression. 

3.1 DATA COLLECTION 

Data was collected and is shown in appendix A from X (formerly Twitter), which was chosen due to its popularity among sports fans and its real-time, conversational nature. Tweets were gathered using a combination of relevant hashtags (e.g. #maxverstappen, #abudhabigrandprix2021, #LandoNoWins) and keywords like Lewis Hamilton and Chinese Grand Prix. The collection process focused on tweets from a specific three-day period, from the 14th to the 16th of March 2025. This timeframe was selected to capture crucial moments in the Formula One discourse. Additionally, tweets were drawn from three significant races: 

1. 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix: As the final race of the 2021 season, this event was pivotal for Max Verstappen's first world championship victory, creating intense fan engagement between him and Lewis Hamilton. 

2. 2024 Chinese Grand Prix: This event was chosen for its timing at the midpoint of the 2024 season, when the outcome was still uncertain, providing fan reactions to an unpredictable season. 

3. 2025 Australian Grand Prix: This race was selected due to significant narrative shifts following the first race of the 2025 season, such as Lewis Hamilton's move to Ferrari and Lando Norris's potential championship bid. 

3.2 SAMPLING STRATEGY

A purposive sampling method was employed to select tweets for analysis, as this technique allows researchers to intentionally focus on data sources that are most relevant to the research question (Patton, 2002). Purposive sampling, also known as judgemental or selective sampling, is a non-random method of selection that enables the researcher to target specific tweets that are likely to provide the most meaningful insights. This approach was particularly suitable for this dissertation, as it allowed for a focused examination of social media content directly tied to Formula One fandom, ensuring the data selected would be rich in context and directly related to the core themes of the research topic. 

The sampling process began by inputting a set of carefully chosen keywords and hashtags into the X (Twitter) search bar. These search terms were deliberately selected to capture a wide range of fan expressions while remaining closely associated with key Formula One teams, drivers, and events. The search terms included names of specific drivers, race locations, season dates and popular event-related phrases. These keywords were derived from an understanding of the Formula One discourse and preliminary observations of commonly used fan phrases, popular culture references and recurring topics during significant Formula One events. For example, terms like #lewishamilton and #maxverstappen, among others, were included, as well as any associated hashtags or trending topics during key races. 

The rationale behind selecting these specific keywords and hashtags was twofold. First, it ensured that the sample of tweets was directly tied to the most salient discussions surrounding the sport, ensuring relevance to the research question. By targeting the conversations around major events and figures within Formula One, the sample could reflect the primary themes of fan engagement, including loyalty, rivalry, excitement and emotional reactions to race results. Secondly, it allowed for a broad yet focused collection of tweets that represented different facets of fan behaviour, including those who might be reacting to positive or negative outcomes, offering predictions or engaging in debates. 

In addition to these predefined search terms, the temporal aspects of fan engagement were also considered. Tweets were sampled from specific periods, such as immediately following a race or during periods of heightened public attention, like driver controversies or team changes. This time-based approach aimed to capture the fluctuations in sentiment and intensity of fan reactions, reflecting how certain events or narratives dominate conversations during the course of the season. 

To ensure a balanced and representative sample, the researcher also took care to avoid over-representing tweets from any single team, driver or event. The sampling process aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of fan interactions on social media by including a diverse set of keywords and using a range of dates. This purposive approach, combined with strategic keyword selection, allowed for the focus to be on the most relevant and meaningful data for a better understanding of how social media reflects and shapes fan attitudes and behaviours within the context of Formula One. 

From the search results, the first ten tweets that were not advertisements and retweets of tweets directly from teams or drivers were selected for each relevant search string. Retweets were excluded to reduce duplication and to prioritise original, organic fan conversation, which provides more insight into individual perspectives rather than the amplification of shared content. The sampled tweets were then transferred into a table for systematic organisation and coded according to the primary emotional response they conveyed; these emotional categories were made using an inductive coding approach. Emotional categories included, but were not limited to, humour, excitement, anger, disappointment and admiration. These categorisations aimed to uncover patterns in fan engagement and explore the emotional spectrum evoked by Formula One content on social media. 

The tweets were analysed in batches to account for temporal variance. In total, 116 tweets were collected and analysed. This sample size was chosen to strike a balance between depth and manageability, allowing for qualitative insights while ensuring the dataset remained feasible for in-depth content analysis. The study aimed to show how fans articulate identity, loyalty, and emotion in a high-stakes digital sporting environment by focusing on this sample. 

3.3 DATA ANALYSIS

The collected tweets were subjected to thematic content analysis, and all stages were conducted manually. This allowed for a deep and interpretive engagement with the data, suitable for addressing this dissertation's research questions on how social media shapes emotional attachment, fan perceptions and participatory behaviour in the context of Formula One. An inductive coding approach was employed to allow themes to emerge naturally from the data rather than imposing pre-determined categories (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This ensured that the analysis remained grounded in the actual discussions of fans and was responsive to the nuances of online interaction. 

The analytical process began with a phase of familiarisation, during which the sampled tweets were read through multiple times to gain a contextual understanding of the tone, language, and recurring issues within the Formula One fan community. This step was essential to identifying how fans express their emotional attachments to teams and drivers (RQ1), particularly in response to race outcomes, driver performance, and personal affiliations. 

Following familiarisation, tweets were manually ordered using short labels that reflected their content or emotional tone. The labels included expressions of loyalty, frustration, admiration, or rivalry, providing direct insight into how fans form and display emotional bonds with specific figures in the sport (RQ1) and how they react to controversies or key moments such as rule changes, crashes, or stewarding decision (RQ2). 

Once initial coding was completed, these codes were clustered into broader thematic categories. Examples of these themes included informational, humorous, uplifting and irrelevant. These themes were instrumental in exploring how social media shapes fan opinions and perceptions (RQ2), especially during polarising or high-stakes events in the Formula One calendar. Fewer tweets were identified as calls to action, such as promoting merchandise or encouraging race attendance. However, the identified tweets directly informed research question three on fan participation and commercial engagement. 

A final stage of interpretation involved analysing the frequency and context of each theme, exploring how they intersected with one another and what they revealed about broader patterns in fan behaviour. The interpretation was directly mapped onto the research questions, allowing examination of how repeated emotional expressions across certain driver hashtags reflected long-term fan loyalty (RQ1) or how shared outrage over specific incidents fostered collective fan identities and narrative formation (RQ2). 

A manual sentiment classification was also undertaken rather than relying on software tools for sentiment analysis. Each tweet was carefully assessed for emotional tone - positive, negative or neutral - based on its language, punctuation, emoji use and contact. This allowed for a more abundant and accurate understanding of the emotional intensity behind fan interactions, which was particularly valuable in addressing research question one and research question two. The manual approach also ensured sensitivity to nuance, such as sarcasm, memes, and coded language, which automated tools might misinterpret. 

4 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

This section presents the key themes and patterns identified through the thematic content analysis of 116 tweets collected from three key Formula One races: the 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, the 2024 Chinese Grand Prix, and the 2025 Australian Grand Prix. Tweets were analysed to address three main research questions: 

1. How does engagement with Formula One related content on social media influence fans’ emotional attachment to teams and drivers?

2. To what extent does social media shape fan perceptions and opinions during controversies or major events in Formula One?

3. How do social media platforms influence fan participation in Formula One related activities such as merchandise purchases, event attendance, or virtual communities?

The findings are organised according to the dominant themes that emerged from the data, supported by representative tweet excerpts where appropriate. Each theme is discussed in relation to the specific race content and the broader Formula One social media environment. 

4.1 CONTENT ANALYSIS

During the content analysis, it became clear that while Twitter remains widely used by Formula One fans across the globe, there has been a noticeable shift in the nature of the tweets, particularly in terms of emotional intensity and the prevalence of hate-driven content. Over the years, the number of hate tweets and highly emotional posts are harder to find. This shift could be attributed to several factors, including the increasing popularity of platforms like TikTok, which has attracted a large segment of Formula One fan base. On TikTok, many fans engage in the creation of edits and short, creative videos that often showcase or highlight memes, or emotional moments from a race. These edits tend to elicit more emotional reactions in the comments, with fans expressing excitement, frustration or admiration in a highly emotive, often exaggerated way.

This contrasts with Twitter, where the tone of the posts can be more neutral or restrained, possibly due to the platform's character limit and the tendency for more succinct, direct communication. Research into social media patterns has shown that emotional engagement on TikTok, especially around content like edits and sports content, is frequently amplified through audiovisual stimulation, soundtracks, and visual storytelling techniques (Kumar, Shah & Gupta, 2021). These emotionally charged interactions are often shared within tightly knit fan communities, creating feedback loops where strong emotional expression is encouraged and rewarded with visibility, likes and shares. 

This shift in the nature of Twitter content could also be partially attributed to the platform's recent acquisition by Elon Musk, which brought significant changes to its structure, policies and user dynamics (Zheleva, Popova, & Zaitsev, 2023.). Since Musk's takeover in late 2022, numerous modifications have been implemented, including the overhaul of verification systems. These shifts have altered how users interact on the platform, particularly in communities such as Formula One, where communication patterns and norms had previously relied on established conventions like the use of hashtags (Newsweek Staff, 2022.). 

During the content collection phase of this dissertation, it became apparent that many users are no longer consistently using hashtags to express support, critique or affiliation with specific drivers, teams, or race events. Instead, fan commentary appears increasingly fragmented or embedded within broader threads, replies or multimedia content rather than easily searchable tagged posts. This change made the research process more challenging, as it required deeper manual searching and the use of keyword variations rather than simple hashtag tracking to locate relevant fan expressions. 

4.2  FAN ENGAGEMENT AND EMOTIONAL ATTACHMENT (RQ1)

A key finding in response to RQ1 is the significant role of emotional expression on platforms like Twitter in strengthening fans' bonds with particular individuals within Formula One. Thematic content analysis revealed that fans often develop deep emotional attachments to drivers such as Lewis Hamilton and Max Verstappen, with social media functioning as a space where these attachments are actively performed, reinforced and negotiated. These emotional ties are not limited to admiration for sporting talent; they frequently incorporate broader themes of identity, loyalty, perceived injustice, and legacy. 

From the perspective of social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979), fans derive a sense of self and group belonging from their affiliation with specific drivers, teams or even wider national and cultural symbols embedded within the sport. The act of emotionally investing in a driver and publicly expressing support becomes a way of affirming one's identity as part of an in-group, in this case, a specific driver's fanbase, often in opposition to a perceived out-group (rival fans or teams). This not only reinforces internal group cohesion but also intensifies emotional expression when key sporting moments occur. 

For example, one tweet stated: 

"Can't believe it's already been a whole year sense [since] one of the best sports days of my life! Max Verstappen wins the 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix and secures his 1st world championship!! Still to this day get chills listening and watching to that last lap. Love this sport." (Abstract A, tweet 1). 

This tweet illustrates how social media allows fans to re-experience emotional highs, transforming public sporting events into deeply personal milestones. The fan's depiction of Verstappen's victory as "one of the best sports days" of their life shows how Twitter can function as a tool for emotional gratification. In line with the uses and gratifications theory (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1973), fans turn to social media not just for information or entertainment but to relive emotionally significant moments, express affective states, and foster a sense of connection with others who share their enthusiasm. 

Emotional content like this contributes to the formation of what scholars call 'affective narratives,' personalised retellings of key events that are emotionally charged and socially shared (Ahmed, 2004). These narratives serve to reinforce communal memory and emotional bonds within fan networks. In digital spaces, especially Twitter, the repetition and amplification of such posts foster what can be described as echo chambers (Sunstein, 2001), where fans primarily encounter perspectives that validate and intensify their emotional commitments. Within these echo chambers, memories of races like the 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix are continually reframed and mythologised, sustaining emotional engagement and reinforcing group norms. 

This form of engagement often supports the development of parasocial relationships, where fans experience a one-sided but meaningful emotional connection to public figures like Formula One drivers. By repeatedly interacting with nostalgic or emotionally charged content, such as videos, race highlights, or commemorative tweets, fans strengthen this perceived bond, deepening their identification with the driver and the community that surrounds them. 

In this way, platforms like Twitter serve not only as repositories of fan sentiment but also as dynamic environments where emotional, identity-based, and participatory behaviours converge. Emotional expression is not merely a reaction to sporting outcomes; it is a form of digital performance that both reflects and shapes how fans see themselves, their heroes, and their place within the larger Formula One community. 

Another example of how social media engagement influences fans' emotional attachment to drivers is the following tweet: 

"Happy birthday to the 2nd greatest driver ever and 2nd place finisher of the 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, Sir Lewis Hamilton" (Appendix A, Tweet 2)

At first glance, the tweet appears sarcastic or humorous. However, a closer reading reveals a persistent emotional investment and a fan-driven narrative that directly challenges the official outcome of the 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix. The framing of Lewis Hamilton as the "2nd greatest driver" and the specific mention of his placement in that race act as subtle forms of resistance. According to framing theory (Entman, 1993), how events and individuals are presented on social media can significantly influence how audiences interpret them. In this case, the framing reinforces a collective fan viewpoint that argues the legitimacy of the race's outcome while celebrating Hamilton's legacy. The phrase 'sir' further instils the tweet with reverence, elevating Hamilton beyond a sporting figure to a symbolic representation of his integrity and perseverance, which in turn gained him the 'Sir' title. 

This form of symbolic resistance illustrates how fans use platforms like Twitter not only to express emotional reactions but also to participate in reframing contested sporting moments. Through humour, irony, and affective language, tweets like this recontextualise the past, sustaining emotional attachments long after the race has ended. This aligns with the echo chamber effect (Sunstein, 2001), whereby fans who share similar views amplify each other's sentiments within a closed loop, reinforcing a shared emotional memory. Continued references to the 2021 race, years after it occurred, demonstrate how digital platforms facilitate long-term emotional engagement, transforming single events into enduring symbols of grievance, loyalty, and identity. 

This pattern of emotional communication is also shaped by users' motivations for engaging with social media. Drawing on the uses and gratification theory (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1973), fans use Twitter to seek emotional connection, validate their beliefs, and strengthen their affiliations with others who share their worldview. Posts like this one do more than inform or entertain; they serve as vehicles for emotional expression, social alignment, and identity affirmation within a digital fandom. By interacting with tweets, replying, or retweeting them with additional commentary, fans help create a narrative that positions Hamilton not just as a competitor but as a cultural icon whose legacy transcends sport. 

This emotional engagement is often intensified by the disinhibited nature of online spaces. Online disinhibition theory (Suler, 2004) explains how users may express themselves more freely, emotionally, or confrontationally on digital platforms than they would in face-to-face settings. This tweet's sarcastic and bold tone, which questions race legitimacy while openly revering Hamilton, reflects this disinhibited behaviour. Twitter's relative anonymity, asynchronous interaction, and reduced social cues enable fans to articulate sentiments they might not otherwise share publicly, including controversial or emotionally charged perspectives. 

Fan interactions around such tweets demonstrate how social media has become a central arena for mean-making, where affect, identity, and memory are collectively constructed. Engagement goes beyond passive consumption; fans actively reshape the narrative of Formula One, defining heroes, villains, and injustices through emotionally coded language. This dynamic is evident in the continued use of phrases like "#AbuDhabi21," which operates as a digital shorthand for a shared emotional and historical grievance. Through retweets, quote tweets, and comment threads, fans maintain these symbolic points as core parts of their identity within the sport. 

Emotional attachment to figures like Hamilton becomes not only about sporting performance but also about deeper values such as justice, perseverance, and representation. These attachments are continually reinforced within the community, where shared grievances act as bonding agents. Group identity is consolidated as fans rally around these emotionally charged moments, distinguishing 'true fans' from outsiders based on how they interpret and respond to them. 

Fan engagement on social media platforms like Twitter influences emotional attachment by offering a space where fans can ritualise their loyalty, express emotional narratives, and take part in symbolic identity work. Tweets such as the ones shown in this chapter serve as affective markers that sustain emotional bonds over time, transforming sports moments into lasting elements of fan identity and collective memory. 

4.3 PERCEPTIONS OF FAIRNESS AND CONTROVERSY (RQ2)

While emotional attachment and identity form the foundation of fan engagement in Formula One, social media plays a significant role in shaping how fans perceive and respond to major controversies or high-stakes events. Social media like Twitter provides a space for fans to act out their emotions, express their opinions, and challenge opposing or dominant narratives, especially when race results are seen as unfair or political. These digital reactions show how social media is not just a site for fan expression but a tool through which perceptions of legitimacy, justice and bias are constructed and contested. 

One tweet found shows: 

"Lewis Hamilton won his 8th championship in F1 and the FIA changed the rules on the last lap to make the white driver win it unfairly in AbuDhabi 2021 #F1 #abudhabi21" (Appendix A, tweet 3)

This tweet shows how social media allows users to frame sporting outcomes within wider socio political narratives. According to framing theory (Entman, 1993), the way individuals present information influences how audiences interpret and understand events. In this case, the fan frames the 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix not as a competitive race but as an orchestrated injustice tied to racial dynamics and institutional power. By declaring that the rules have been "changed ... to make the white driver win," Twitter made the loss of Lewis Hamilton, a representative of the bias system. This redefines the event's meaning, making it a symbol of perceived racial injustice rather than just a sporting decision.

The strategic use of hashtags such as #AbuDhabi21 and #F1 shows the tweet within a larger networked conversation, inviting others to engage and reinforcing the perception that this viewpoint is part of a broader collective. In this way, the tweet acts as an entry point into an echo chamber. In this digitally enclosed space, users encounter and reinforce similar opinions, thus intensifying their emotional and ideological commitments (Sunstein, 2001). Within such echo chambers, grievances are shared and amplified, allowing narratives like Hamilton's alleged mistreatment to persist and grow in cultural relevance over time. 

This dynamic is further explained by the cultivation theory (Gerbner & Gross, 1976), which suggests that prolonged exposure to specific narratives, even if indirectly or repetitively encountered, can shape individuals' long-term beliefs and attitudes. Repeated tweets calling out the unfairness, racism, and selfishness of the authorities surrounding the Abu Dhabi 2021 race may lead fans to take these interpretations as fact, especially in the absence of an opposing perspective. Over time, the cultivation of these narratives fosters a sense of moral urgency and emotional investment that strengthens fans' identification with drivers like Hamilton and their scepticism towards regulatory bodies like the FIA. 

At the same time, social media platforms fulfil various users' needs as outlined by the uses and gratifications theory (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1973). Fans turn to platforms like Twitter not just for updates but to seek emotional validation, vent frustrations, build identity, and connect with like-minded individuals. In the case of this tweet, the emotionally charged language reflects the user's need to express outrage and foster solidarity within a digital fan community. The tweet becomes both a personal outlet and a public signal of belonging, a way to show allegiance, align with collective values, and participate in the ongoing co-construction of Formula One's cultural meanings. 

Additionally, the bold and accusatory tone of the tweet - claiming rule manipulation and racial injustice - may be intensified by the conditions described in online disinhibition theory (Suler, 2004). The relative anonymity and psychological distance provided by social media platforms lowers users' inhibitions, enabling them to articulate views they might not express in person. This theory encourages more emotionally raw, confrontational, or exaggerated commentary, which in turn fuels the emotional atmosphere of online fan communities. Statements that seem inflammatory or controversial offline are commonplace within the digital space, further reinforcing group identity and emotional loyalty. 

Crucially, this tweet is not an isolated incident but part of a sustained process of narrative reassertion. Through hashtags, quote tweets, and repetitive framing of key moments like the Abu Dhabi 2021 race, fans construct alternative histories that collectively challenge official records and traditional media accounts. In doing so, they help reshape the event's legacy and the public image of the drivers involved. The sustained emotional engagement around this controversy becomes a defining feature of fandom, where remembering and reinterpreting become just as important as watching. 

Emotionally charged posts like this show how digital fan cultures rely on framing, emotional amplification and collective memory to solidify attachments and assert alternative truths. Platforms like Twitter not merely reflect fan sentiments; they help construct and reinforce them, shaping not only how the sport is experienced but also how its history is remembered. 

In contrast, another tweet shows high praise for Max Verstappen: 

"There was not a single lap in the Chinese GP where any of the top 4… were faster than Max Verstappen… his pace was unworldly." (Appendix A, Tweet 4)

This post exemplifies how fans use social media not merely to share opinions but to construct and circulate dominant narratives of excellence. It goes beyond simple admiration, contributing to a broader cultural process in which certain figures are mythologised and elevated within the digital fan community. The consistent celebration of Verstappen's skills and composure under pressure helps to shape his public persona, turning him into a symbolic embodiment of elite performance in Formula One. Through this repetition, fans engage in the form of digital storytelling that, over time, cultivates widely shared perceptions of greatness, an example explained by cultivation theory (Gerbner & Gross, 1976), which suggests that sustained exposure to particular messages shapes users' long-term views and expectations. 

Framing theory (Entman, 1993), further clarifies how fans selectively highlight certain aspects of a driver's performance, such as Verstappen's pace, dominance, or consistency, while omitting others. This framing guides audience interpretation, creating a shared understanding of what constitutes sporting excellence. These frames are not neutral; they are shaped by emotional allegiances, team loyalty, and cultural narratives (Amis, 2017). By continuously positioning Verstappen as "unworldly," fans reinforce a narrative that privileges his dominance and builds a symbolic capital, rivalling, and often surpassing, the narratives constructed by official commentators or media outlets. 

Where the earlier tweet about Lewis Hamilton invoked themes of injustice and institutional bias, this post about Verstappen is unequivocally celebratory. The contrast illustrates the fragmented nature of narrative authority in the digital age. Fans now have the power not only to react to sporting events but to define their meaning. This dynamic agrees with the uses and gratification theory (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1973). In praising Verstappen, fans engage in self-affirming behaviour, aligning their identities with a perceived winner and reinforcing their sense of belonging within a broader in-group. 

This behaviour also connects to the echo chamber effect (Sunstein, 2001), where repeated interactions within ideologically aligned groups serve to reinforce dominant narratives. By consistently engaging with and amplifying celebratory posts, Verstappen fans contribute to a closed feedback loop that affirms their view and insulates them from alternative interpretations, such as criticisms of the driver or the controversies surrounding his success. Within echo chambers, reputations are protected, loyalties are solidified and dissent is often marginalised, contributing to a highly polarised but emotionally strong fan culture. 

Online disinhibition theory (Suler, 2004) can also be a cause for the amplified tone and certainty of the tweet. The relative anonymity and low-risk environment of social media lowers users' self-monitoring, allowing them to express extreme admiration or criticism more freely than they might in face-to-face settings. Though emotionally charged, these exaggerated expressions become normalised within fan communities, reinforcing the heroism of a confident driver and the villainization of others. Emotional intensity is not a byproduct; it is central to how meaning is produced and circulated within digital fan communities. 

This tweet and those like it illustrate that social media is not a passive mirror of fan sentiment but an active site of cultural production. Through frameworks like framing theory, cultivation theory, and uses and gratifications theory, it becomes clear that platforms like Twitter function as places where fan identities are asserted, contested and ritualised. The contrasting narratives around Hamilton and Verstappen show how reputations are formed not only by performance on the track but also by the stories fans retell and amplify online. These emotional, often opposing narratives demonstrate how social media enables fans to become co-authors of the sport's history, creating enduring symbolic landscapes that outlast the race itself. 

This directly addresses research question two - to what extent does social media shape fan perceptions and opinions during controversies and significant events in Formula One - by highlighting how online platforms provide the tools, space, and social feedback loops that empower fans to reinterpret key moments through personal, emotional and ideological lenses. Social media transforms fleeting race moments into lasting cultural narratives by allowing real-time expression, emotional intensity, and identity-driven engagement. The aftershock of events like the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix or Verstappen's dominant performances are not just kept alive by official replays or interviews but by fan-driven discourse that continuously reframes, reinforces, or reimagines what they mean. As such, Formula One's cultural memory is no longer written by journalists and commentators but by the emotional labour of fan communities whose voices are now central to the sport's unfolding story. 

4.4 PARTICIPATION (RQ3)

Participation in the Formula One fandom extends far beyond race day commentary; it often manifests in dynamic and creative forms of digital expression, including the creation of memes, recurring jokes, and the use of hashtags. These elements have become key features of the sport's online culture, offering fans new ways to connect, share opinions and build community. A notable example is the viral hashtag #LandoNoWins, which humorously references Lando Norris's initial challenge for his first Grand Prix victory. This kind of digital content spreads rapidly across platforms like Twitter, TikTok and Instagram, becoming part of the everyday language and identity of the fanbase. 

Fans regularly engage in these playful yet meaningful practices to express support, critique or amusement, often in ways that reflect their emotional connection to drivers and teams. Hashtags, memes, and edited videos serve as inside jokes or shared symbols within fan communities, evolving with each race and responding to major events or controversies in the sport, whether through celebratory posts, sarcastic comments, or nostalgic throwbacks, Formula One fans play an active role in shaping the online culture that surrounds the sport. 

As the sport continues to grow in global popularity, particularly among younger audiences, these digital interactions have become an integral part of how fans experience Formula One. They offer insight into the evolving nature of fandom in the social media age, one that is participatory, creative, and deeply embedded in online spaces (Vliek, 2023). 

Some examples being:

"❌ #LandoNoWins ✅ #LandoNowins" (Appendix A, tweet 5), "I remember seeing #LandoNoWins trending… glad y'all bullied him into his first win" (Appendix A, tweet 6), and "@landonorris #LandoNowins instead of #LandoNoWins, I'm going for 7 wins this year (Appendix A, tweet 7). 

These tweets highlight the reactive and interactive ways in which Formula One fans participate in shaping public narratives around drivers. Far from being simple entertainment, these interactions form part of an evolving digital jargon that encourages belonging and cultural continuity within fan communities. This use of humour and shared language signals deeper emotional investment and communal affiliation, key factors in fan behaviour that increasingly extend beyond the screen and into commercial and real-world actions. 

Viewed through the lens of uses and gratifications theory (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1973), these online behaviours reflect fans' active pursuit of social interaction, entertainment, personal identity and community building. Fans do not simply consume content; they create, share, and remix it to satisfy emotional and interpersonal needs. The trending #LandoNoWins illustrates this process: fans engage not only to express support or frustration but also to participate in a collective narrative that connects them with others who share their interests and humour. This connection strengthens over time, transforming casual viewership into committed participation that often includes purchasing merchandise, attending Grand Prix events, and joining driver-specific communities or online forums. 

These digital interactions are also shaped by framing theory (Entman, 1993), as fans select specific aspects of a driver's story, like Lando Norris's elusive first win, and amplify them through humour and repetition. This framing guides collective interpretation: rather than portraying Norris as unsuccessful, fans recast him as a sympathetic underdog, an identity that enhances emotional resonance and marketability. This type of narrative positioning often translates into increased fan loyalty, which is crucial in a commercial context where emotional connection drives merchandise sales and brand affiliation. 

The viral spread of memes and hashtags such as #LandoNoWins also contribute to the cultivation of shared symbolic frameworks over time, aligning with cultivation theory (Gerbner, 1998). As fans repeatedly encounter certain narratives and tropes, their perceptions of drivers and the sport itself are shaped in cumulative ways. For instance, the meme surrounding Norris's initial winless streak did not just comment on his performance; it cultivated an identity that fans could rally behind, reinforcing his images as a relatable and hardworking competitor, making his first win an even bigger celebration for fans. This consistent reinforcement strengthens parasocial relationships, deepens fans' commitment, and enhances the perceived authenticity of the driver's persona.  

Social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 29179) further illuminates how this engagement creates in-group dynamics. Fans who partake in shared jokes, hashtags, and symbolic references form sub-communities within the broader fandom. The ability to understand and contribute to these inside references becomes a form of cultural capital, allowing fans to signal group membership. This identification fosters a sense of pride and loyalty, which can manifest in offline behaviours such as buying team gear, decorating personal spaces with driver memorabilia or traveling to race weekends to visibly demonstrate support. 

These virtual communities are enhanced by the dynamics of the echo chamber effect (Sunstein, 2001). On platforms like Twitter, fans are frequently exposed to like-minded content that reaffirms their interpretations and allegiances. As fans repeatedly engage with posts that celebrate or humorously critique drivers, these narratives become more entrenched. This closed-loop reinforcement increases fan cohesion and amplifies shared emotional responses, further motivating participation in both online and offline Formula One-related activities. 

The online disinhibition effect (Suler, 2004) also plays a critical role in shaping how fans interact on social platforms. The relative anonymity and immediacy of Twitter allow users to express strong opinions, humour, or sarcasm without the same social constraints they might experience offline. This dynamic encourages more frequent posting, bolder humour, and increased creativity, contributing to the viral potential of hashtags like #LandoNoWins and encouraging broader community engagement. When fans feel free to speak candidly and creatively, their participation becomes more emotionally charged and authentic, traits that often translate into deeper personal investment in the sport. 

In this way, Twitter is not merely a broadcast platform but a participatory ground where fan culture is actively constructed, negotiated, and circulated. Fans use symbolic content to express their identities, reinforce group values, and shape collective narratives that enhance the emotional appeal of Formula One. These practices  contribute to commercial outcomes as well: drivers with active and engaged online followings often see increases in merchandise sales, social media influence, and sponsor interest due to their perceived cultural relevance and fan loyalty. 

Ultimately, fan participation in Formula One is shaped profoundly by social media dynamics. Hashtags and memes like #LandoNoWins exemplify how digital expressions of humour and community not only drive online engagement but also influence real-world behaviours such as attendance, merchandise purchases, and long-term fandom. Social media platforms like Twitter serve as critical infrastructures for this engagement, enabling fans to co-create the meaning of the sport and cement their role in Formula One's evolving cultural and commercial landscape. 

5 CONCLUSION

This dissertation set out to explore the extent and nature of social media fan behaviour in Formula One, with a particular focus on Twitter (now X). Using a qualitative content analysis of tweets related to three significant races across the 2021, 2024, and 2025 seasons, the study investigated how fans express emotional attachment, construct fan identity, and engage in digital participation within the Formula One community. 

The findings reveal that emotional engagement is central to how fans respond to race outcomes, driver performances, and moments of controversy. Tweets expressing allegiance to drivers, particularly figures such as Lewis Hamilton, often intertwined personal loyalty with broader narratives of injustice, legacy or historical significance. Humour-based posts, exemplified by the viral use of hashtags like #LandoNoWins, illustrate how fans use satire, irony, and collective language to foster a sense of belonging. This emotional and narrative-driven engagement highlights how fan discourse is not merely reactive but also interpretive and symbolic, often reflecting deeper themes of fairness, rivalry, and identity construction. 

The study confirms that social media functions as more than a space for commentary; it serves as a participatory platform where fans co-create and actively shape the discussions around the sport. Hashtags, memes, and viral trends not only contribute to driver visibility but also influence the framing of their public personas. In doing so, fans move from passive consumers of content to active producers of cultural narratives, demonstrating a shift in the traditional power dynamics between sports media, athletes, and audiences. 

This research contributes to the expanding body of literature on digital fandom by offering insight into the specific practises and behaviours of Formula One's online fanbase. It underscores both the cultural and commercial significance of fan participation, suggesting that the narratives formed through platforms like Twitter can shape reputations, influence fan loyalty, and potentially impact sponsorship and marketing strategies within the sport. 

Nevertheless, the study is not without limitations. The sample was restricted to a select number of tweets and races, which may not capture the full diversity of Formula One's global fan community. Additionally, the exclusive focus on Twitter omits behaviours and conversations that may be prominent on other platforms such as Instagram, TikTok or Reddit. Future research could address these gaps by employing a mixed methods approach, incorporating interviews, sentient analysis software, or comparative platform studies to provide a more holistic understanding of digital fandom in Formula One. 

In conclusion, this dissertation demonstrates that social media significantly shapes fan behaviour in Formula One, influencing how fans emotionally respond to events, express their identities, and engage with the sport both online and offline. The findings reveal that fan interactions on platforms such as Twitter are not passive reflections of race-day outcomes but emotionally charged, identity-driven, and creatively expressive acts that contribute to the construction of parallel, fan-led narratives. Through mechanisms such as hashtags, memes, humour and participatory commentary, fans reinterpret official narratives, form digital communities, and co-create reputational conversations around drivers and teams. These behaviours often extend beyond the digital realm, impacting merchandise purchasing, event attendance, and long-term brand loyalty. 

This study highlights that Formula One fandom online is not merely a byproduct of the sport; it is a dynamic and interactive narrative ecosystem where meaning is constantly being reframed and reimagined in real time. Theories such as framing, social identity, cultivation, uses and gratifications, and online disinhibition help explain the depth and diversity of these behaviours. As Formula One continues to grow in digital influence and cultural relevance, understanding the extent of this participatory fan culture becomes critical, not only for media scholars but also for marketers, sponsors, and sports governing bodies seeking to connect authentically with audiences. Social media is no longer a supplementary layer to the sport; it is a central area where the emotional, cultural and commercial dimensions of fandom unfold.